Department of the Interior
U.S. Geological Survey
Florida Integrated Science Center

AMPHIBIAN RESEARCH AND MONITORING INITIATIVE
GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS AMPHIBIAN PROJECT

Results for 2000, Part I

Statement of Provisional Data
The data you have secured from the USGS database identified as have not received Director's approval and as such are provisional and subject to revision. The data are released on the condition that neither the USGS nor the United States Government may be held liable for any damages resulting from its authorized or unauthorized use."

C. Kenneth Dodd, Jr. and Marian L. Griffey
FISC, Gainesville, Florida

Work Schedule

CKD and MLG made monthly trips to the GSMNP from April to May and from July through September, 2000. A total of 29 days were spent conducting fieldwork within the Park. Four days of fieldwork in June were carried out by Dr. Lora Smith of the FISC.

Locations of Surveys and Distribution of Species

The distribution of all aquatic, terrestrial, and cave sampling sites examined between 1998 and 2000 has been plotted on 7.5' topographic maps and on computer-based maps using the software TOPO (Interactive maps on CD-ROM for North Georgia, Great Smoky Mountains, and Atlanta: North Georgia; version 1.2.4). Amphibian distribution has been mapped using GIS. We are currently analyzing amphibian distribution in relation to species richness, altitude, geological formation, fire history, vegetation type, and past/current land use. This will allow us to assess impacts due to climate and other forms of anthropogenic change. The data will be compared with past information to determine possible effects or shifts in distribution. We anticipate that the analysis of the landscape dynamics of the amphibians of Great Smoky Mountain N.P. will be completed in late FY2001, with a manuscript to be submitted to the Park Service and for journal publication early in FY2002.

Aquatic Habitats

There are several types of aquatic habitats that are inhabited by amphibians in the Smoky Mountains. In 2000, CKD and MLG used time constraint surveys to determine amphibian presence at various aquatic sites, including large and small streams, ponds, grassy meadows, seeps, temporary pools, and wet rock faces. Sixty-three locations were sampled, involving 4842 survey minutes (80.7 person-hours). Salamanders of the genera Desmognathus and Eurycea were most common; larvae of these species were particularly common. Twenty-three species of salamanders and 11 species of frogs have been caught thus far during aquatic surveys in the Park.

Seeps surveyed: Bogs and seeps along Indian Creek, near Abrams Creek campground, near the Henry Whitehead cabin, just south of Smokemont campground, and near Laurel Creek in Big Spring Cove.

Ponds and Small Wetland Depressions

Ponds and depressions fill during the winter and spring months, and usually dry completely during the late summer and autumn months. Such ponds and wetland depressions are not common in the Smokies, but are used seasonally by species such as wood frogs (Rana sylvatica), Ambystoma salamanders, four-toed salamanders (Hemidactylium scutatum), and eastern spotted newts (Notophthalmus viridescens). J. Petranka and Chuck Smith (pers. comm.) have monitored Gum Swamp in Cades Cove and three of the Finley Cane Trail ponds in Big Spring Cove during the last 8 years by counting egg masses of wood frogs and spotted salamanders. Our surveys have been spot checks for the presence of species, usually larvae or tadpoles.

In 2000, we (CKD/MLG) checked other temporary woodland ponds (e.g., The Sinks, the pond behind the Sugarlands Visitor Center, small depressions along Tremont Road, a small pond along Abrams Creek in Cades Cove, Gourley Pond in Cades Cove). The presence of frogs and salamanders was determined at aquatic sites using visual encounter surveys and call surveys.

Sites surveyed (CKD and MLG): Gum Swamp, 4 ponds in Big Spring Cove (Finley Cane sinkhole ponds), woodland pools on west side of Laurel Creek Rd. in Big Spring Cove, pool in Metcalf Bottoms picnic ground, Methodist Church Pond, beaver pond and woodland pool along Big Cove Road, pond behind Sugarlands Visitor Center, The Sinks, Abrams Creek pool, wetlands in eastern part of Cades Cove, Gourley Pond, sinkhole pond se of Gourley Pond, small depressions along Tremont Road, pond nw of Tipton Oliver place in central Cades Cove.

Streams

The Southern Appalachians are host to a wide variety of primitive plethodontids, especially salamanders of the genus Desmognathus and members of the plethodontid Tribe Hemidactylinii (Eurycea, Pseudotriton, Gyrinophilus). These species range in habitat preference from swift forest streams to semi-aquatic to completely terrestrial. With the exception of the pygmy and seepage salamanders, all have aquatic larvae. The larval stage may last from one year (small Desmognathus) to three years in the large blackbelly salamander. Larval identification may be particularly difficult, hybridization occurs among some adults, and even genera are sometimes difficult to distinguish under field conditions. A wide variety of stream sampling techniques have been used to inventory and determine relative abundance of these species; the use a quadrat or sectional approach, dividing streams into sampling units and intensively collecting these sections, has been adopted in stream surveys, particularly in the western U.S. (Bury and Corn, 1991).

Sites surveyed: lower Abrams Creek, upper Abrams Creek (including several small feeder streams), Mill Creek, Forge Creek, Fighting Creek (upper and lower), Maddron Creek, Styx Branch, Alum Cave Creek, Oconaluftee River, Middle Prong of Little River, a small stream at The Sinks, and Mossy Rock Branch.

The distribution of hellbenders and mudpuppies in GSMNP

Large streams (or small rivers) are not common within the Park, but they are inhabited by two species of very unique salamanders, the hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) and the mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus). Hellbenders historically occurred in the lower reaches of many of the swift flowing rivers, such as West Prong of the Little Pigeon River, Oconaluftee River, Little River, and Abrams Creek.

Hellbenders are best observed in summer or fall using direct observation (snorkeling, turning flat rocks with a seine downstream; Peterson, 1987) whereas mudpuppies are best sampled from fall to spring in dense leaf beds using heavy-duty dip nets. Mudpuppies rarely have been recorded from the lower reaches of Abrams Creek and in the Little River near Townsend (based on the results from fish survey crews). In 1998, we briefly surveyed for these species at Abrams Creek, but none were found. Results of a random search that USGS personnel conducted in 1999 were included in last year's report.

In 2000, we contracted with Dr. Max Nickerson of the Florida Museum of Natural History to conduct a systematic search of the Park's streams for these two species of aquatic salamanders. Dr. Nickerson has conducted research on hellbenders throughout his career, primarily in the Ozarks, and has co-authored a monograph on their life history (Nickerson and Mays, 1973).

Terrestrial Habitats

Many species of lungless salamanders inhabit terrestrial situations, often far from the nearest water. Members of the genus Plethodon, in particular, require moist habitats but not standing water. Eggs are deposited in moist locations, sometimes deep underground, and development is direct. Individuals are seasonally active (at cooler times of the year), but surface activity patterns vary with moisture conditions and elevation. High elevation species are active throughout the summer depending on rainfall. Plethodontids are best sampled using some form of time constraint sampling within defined areas (permanent quadrats or within a spatially defined area) either at night or diurnally during or immediately following (preferably) rainfall. Terrestrial plethodontids also have been sampled using artificial coverboards made of various types of material. For our surveys, we have used a combination of techniques.

In time-constraint surveys in 2000, CKD and MLG sampled 30 locations for a total of 2682 min (44.7 person-hours). From 1998-2000, some of the more common salamanders encountered included Ambystoma opacum (182) [most during September surveys in dry pond beds], Plethodon jordani (578), P. serratus (206), P. glutinosus (106), Eurycea wilderae (91), Desmognathus wrighti (160), D. imitator (134) and Notophthalmus viridescens (90) [nearly all during the September surveys of dry Gourley Pond]. Areas were searched thoroughly by turning all rocks, pieces of wood and clumps of debris.

Continue the long-term monitoring program established by Petranka/Smith

From 1993 to 1995, James Petranka and Charles Smith conducted an amphibian monitoring program within GSMNP. At nine sampling sites (three sites along Beech Flats Creek on Highway 441, two sites along the Clingmans Dome road, two sites in the Heintooga Overlook area, two sites along the Roaring Fork Motor Trail; these authors established 3 30 x 40 m plots. The sites were permanently marked out. Each plot was sampled once per year at each site (N = 27 total plots) in either early June (Plot A), July (Plot B), or August (Plot C). When sampling, all rocks, logs, and surface debris were turned in both the stream and the terrestrial section and all salamanders were captured. Data on size and species of salamander and distance to stream were recorded. Salamanders were assigned to 5 mm size-class categories or to qualitative categories (larva, juvenile, small adult, large adult) if individuals escaped. All salamanders were released after data were recorded. Data on rainfall, water temperature (WT), pH, water conductivity, soil pH, soil conductivity, % soil moisture, air temperature (AT), substrate temperature (ST) and relative humidity (RH) were recorded. RH, AT, ST, and WT were recorded both before and after plot surveys. Soil samples are taken at three locations within the plot. Samples are bagged and weighed, and later analyzed for moisture after drying for 24-48 hrs in a drying oven.

After consultation with Drs. Petranka and Smith, we continued the sampling of these 27 plots, using the same basic data collection protocol, from 1998 to 2000. We collected data during the first weeks of June, July, and August; data were recorded on data sheets and entered into appropriate data bases. All data entry is complete and up-to-date.

Results from the 1993-1995 field were presented by Smith and Petranka (2000). We plan to re-examine the results of the 1993 to 1995 survey after adding the new data collected from 1998 to 2000.  This will allow to examine the long-term efficacy and statistical rigor of this sampling protocol to determine trends in both streamside and adjacent terrestrial salamander populations. We are concerned by variation that might be attributed to observer experience, weather, various life history attributes, or to confusion in relegating individual salamanders to various species complexes or guilds. In addition, it is quite obvious that the habitat structure within the plots changes over time. The potential biophysical effects of changes in habitat structure on counts of salamanders repeated over a number of years is unknown, but they certainly may add a complicating factors to interpreting count data. Our analyses, planned for this spring and summer, will:

1. Re-examine the count data at the 27 study plots using the exact same statistical analysis as presented by Smith and Petranka (2000).

2. Examine the plot count data to determine if detection probabilities (with appropriate confidence intervals) can be determined for the various species. If it is possible to do so, we plan to work with our SE ARMI Biometrics Advisory Team to see if the detection probabilities and associated measures of variance may give a better indication of trends through time than simple counts of animals.

Based on the results of these analyses, we will be in a better position when making recommendations to the National Park Service about whether or not to continue long-term counts on "permanent" plots established throughout the Smokies.

Between 1993 and 2000, a total of 9,767 salamanders (12 species) have been recorded on the 27 study sites as follows:

Year Number of Salamanders Mean per Plot       1993                  1665 61.7 1994                  1774 65.7 1995                  1449  N=4888 53.7 1998                  1874 69.4 1999                  1547 57.3 2000                  1458  N=4879 54.0

The most common species observed, in descending order, were Desmognathus ochrophaeus complex (3357), Plethodon jordani (2112), D. quadramaculatus (1457), D. fuscus complex (938), unknown Desmognathus (560), D. wrighti (526), Eurycea wilderae (502), Plethodon glutinosus complex (106), Gyrinophilus porphyriticus (62), D. monticola (46), Salamander, species unknown (41), P. serratus (35), D. marmoratus (14), unknown Eurycea (10). In the plot surveys, the ochrophaeus complex consists of D. imitator and D. ocoee; the fuscus complex includes D. conanti and D. santeetlah; the glutinosus complex includes P. glutinosus and P. oconaluftee.

Amphibians in GSMNP Caves

Gregory's Cave (Cades Cove): In July, 1998, we set up a monitoring site at Gregory's Cave on the north side of Cades Cove. This is a well-known, easily accessible, formerly commercial cave where dances were once held. It now hosts an endangered crustacean and a winter colony of bats, including possibly Indiana bats. We surveyed the cave 6 times, and found 2 species of salamanders (Eurycea longicauda, Plethodon glutinosus). We found ranid frogs (Rana sylvatica, R. clamitans) and toads (Bufo americanus and B. fowleri) at the entrance. We measured total survey time (1960 survey minutes on 7 visits between April and December), the number of salamanders seen, the greatest distance from the entrance for each species, and the relative humidity, air temperature, and substrate temperature both just inside the entrance and in the back of the cave.

Plethodon glutinosus was the most common species encountered (11 outside the gate and 9 inside the gate). Seven Eurycea longicauda were found outside the gate (but none after September and December), and 7 were found inside the gate. The greatest number of salamanders was found in July (as opposed to September the last two years). Substantial number of long-tailed salamander larvae were found in several pools all summer; at least two were close to transforming indicating that successful metamorphosis can occur in some years. The long-tailed salamanders were found as far back as 79 meters from the entrance, and the slimy salamanders were found as far back as 40 meters.

10 x 10 m Plot Surveys (from 1998)

Using 10 x 10 meter plots in 1998, USGS personnel surveyed portions of 41 trails (N=137 plots with verifiable location data; some locations mentioned in the 1998 report could not be verified and have been excluded from further analysis). Plots were searched thoroughly by turning all rocks, pieces of wood and clumps of debris. Within these temporary study plots, 412 individuals of 18 species (including 3 reptile species) were recorded. At least 215 miles of trail were hiked to record these data. The following species were recorded: Desmognathus conanti, D. imitator, D. ocoee, D. quadramaculatus, D. santeetlah, D. wrighti, Eurycea longicauda, E. wilderae, Gyrinophilus porphyriticus, Notophthalmus viridescens, Plethodon glutinosus, P. jordani, P. serratus, P. ventralis, Bufo americanus, Thamnophis sirtalis, Elaphe guttata, Virginia valeriae.  Weather and habitat data were also recorded at each plot. These data are presented for the first time in this report. All GPS locations were corrected and are now accurate. These data have been incorporated into our overall data set.

New Records/Verifications

We have not been able to verify two species historically recorded from the Park: Acris crepitans and Rana pipiens. Specimens of the leopard frog are in the Park's collection from Cades Cove (Abrams Creek) and Chilhowee. A tentative sighting was made by our field crew in the vicinity of the Abrams Creek Ranger station, although a specimen was not secured. The cricket frog also was reported from the village of Chilhowee. This site no longer exists as it was flooded by the creation of Chilhowee Lake. We suspect that the northern cricket frog never actually occurred within the Park's boundaries. In the spring of 2001, special attention will be directed at confirming the existence of leopard frogs within the Park and establishing their specific identity.

We are pleased to confirm that Necturus maculosus was found both by our field crew (larvae in Abrams Creek) and by the Florida Museum of Natural History survey. Both larvae and adults (with some adults being PIT tagged) were encountered. This species is now known from Abrams Creek and Little River within the Park. Searchers in the other large streams did not encounter this species, however.

We found two specimens of the three-lined salamander, Eurycea guttolineata, on the North Carolina side, one near where the Blue Ridge Parkway crosses Big Cove Road and the other near Glady Branch above Fontana Reservoir. Searches elsewhere proved unsuccessful, however. It seems likely that this species may be found elsewhere on the North Carolina side, particularly in the area surrounding Big Cove, but it should be considered a rare species within the Park.

Amphibian Deformities

No amphibian deformities were encountered in 2000.

Amphibian Mortality

A total of 25 animals of four species (Rana sylvatica, Pseudacris crucifer, Ambystoma opacum, Notophthalmus viridescens) were sent to Dr. D. Earl Green of the USGS National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, for diagnosis. In brief, the report (dated May 12, 2000) noted necrotizing hepatitis, splenitis and mesonephritis due to iridovirus infection in 5 of 10 wood frog tadpoles;  necrotizing hepatitis, glomerulitis and pancreatitis due to iridovirus infection in 1 of 3 adult eastern spotted newts; necrotizing hepatitis, pancreatitis and mesonephritis due to iridovirus infection in 3 of 3 marbled salamander larvae; vesiculating stomatitis of the oral disc of 1 wood frog tadpole, again due to iridovirus infection. Positive iridovirus cultures were taken from 1 adult eastern spotted newt and 1 marbled salamander larva. Oxyurid (pinworm) infections were seen in 11 wood frog tadpoles, trematodes were found in 1 newt, intestinal coccidiosis in 1 newt, and one tadpole (presumably Pseudacris crucifer) was normal.  A presumed iridovirus infection was reported from amphibians at this site in 1999. Iridoviruses are responsible for serious infections in amphibians elsewhere in North America (Daszak et al, 1999). The fungus Ichthyophonus, found last year, was not reported in 2000. Complete necropsy reports on each animal previously were sent to the Park Service. These findings affirm that additional attention should be directed at monitoring the health status of amphibians breeding at Gourley Pond and perhaps elsewhere in Cades Cove.

In addition to the specimens found at Gourley Pond, one large female larval Gyrinophilus porphyriticus was found with a nodule on the side of the head. The nodule was the result of a fungus-like organism, tentatively referred to Dermosporidium. JDC and David Green are preparing a journal publication on this animal.

An Amphibian Mortality Information Sheet has been developed by the Declining Amphibians Population Task Force. This sheet provides information on steps that can be taken to minimize disease transfer among sampling sites. Speare et al. (1999) offer additional suggestions. We have adopted biosecurity protocols when working in wetlands of Cades Cove, including cleaning all collecting equipment (nets, dipnets, rubber gloves) and boots in a weak bleach solution after sampling at a site to prevent the possible transmission of a disease agent. This is especially important in Cades Cove (Abrams Creek pool, Gum Swamp, Gourley Pond, Methodist Church Pond) where disease agents have been or may yet be found.

Voucher Specimens

Vouchers have been occasionally taken and will be deposited in the research collection of the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. Many of these specimens were found dead on park roads as a result of highway traffic.

Project Products

Journals

Barichivich, W.J., K.G. Smith, and J.L. Waldron. 200_. Life history notes:     Gyrinophilus porphyriticus danielsi (Blue-ridge spring salamander). Behavior. Herpetol. Rev., in press.

Corser, J.D. 2001.  Decline of disjunct green salamander (Aneides aeneus) populations in the southern Appalachians.  Biological Conservation. 97(1): 119-126.

Dodd, C.K., Jr. and M.L. Griffey. 1999. Geographic distribution: Ambystoma talpoideum (Mole Salamander). Herpetol. Rev. 30(2): 105.

Irwin, K.J., C.K. Dodd, Jr., and M.L. Griffey. 1999. Geographic distribution: Scaphiopus holbrooki (Eastern spadefoot toad). Herpetol. Rev. 30(4): 232.

Smith, K.G., J.L. Waldron, and W.J. Barichivich. 200_. Life history notes: Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta (Black Rat Snake). Predation. Herpetol. Rev., submitted.

Abstracts

Corser, J.D. 1999.  Intraspecific distribution/abundance patterns in an endangered salamander: implications for amphibian declines. Joint meeting of the American Society of Ichthyologists & Herpetologists, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA

Corser, J.D. 2000.  Metapopulation dynamics explain the positive correlation between distribution and abundance in an endangered salamander. Association of Southeast Biologists Bulletin. In press.

Dodd, C.K., Jr., J.D. Corser, and M.L. Griffey. 2000. An inventory of the amphibians of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Some initial results. Association of Southeast Biologists Bulletin. 47(2): 217.

Dodd, C.K., Jr. 2000. Initiating large-scale inventory and monitoring programs for amphibian in the southeastern United States: the Great Smoky Mountains National Park model. Program SSAR-HL-ASIH meeting, Baja California, Mexico. [Invited paper]

Dodd, C.K., Jr. 2000. Developing large scale inventory and monitoring programs for amphibians. Invited paper at symposium entitled "Symposium on Reptile and Amphibian Ecology and Conservation", Taipei Zoo, Taipei, China.

1998 Press Coverage

Smokies Amphibians Subject of Survey,  Knoxville News-Sentinel (June 8, 1998)
Survey to Study Amphibians in Smokies, Atlanta Journal Constitution (June 7, 1998)
Interior Chief Checks out Amphibian Survey, Knoxville News-Sentinel (July 11, 1998)
CBS News Television Report "Eye on America" July 20-2, 1998
(see http:/www/frogweb.gov/cbsnews.html for a companion piece).
Frogs Indicate Environmental Health, Cutting Edge Science (1(3):1-2, September 1998)
Park's 30^th Salamander Species Discovered, Bearpaw (Fall 1998)
Secretary of Interior Bruce Babbitt visited the project on July 10, 1998.

1999 Press Coverage

New Salamander Documented in Park, Mountain Press (January 12, 1999)
Despite Snake Bites, Researcher Searches Smokies for Amphibians, Maryville Daily Times (August 30,1999)
TV (WLOS-Asheville), Joined us for a survey on June 2.

Internet

Southeastern Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative (SE ARMI): http://fl.biology.usgs.gov/armi/

The Great Smoky Mountains National Park Inventory and Monitoring Project:
http://fl.biology.usgs.gov/Amphibians_and_Reptiles/Herp_Program_Goals/herp_
program_goals.html#GSMNP

SIS. Inventory and development of monitoring protocols for amphibians of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park:
http://fisc.usgs.gov/Amphibians_and_Reptiles/Herp_Current_Projects/
Herp_Inventory_and_Devel/herp_inventory_and_devel.html

Amphibians of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, compiled by C. K. Dodd, Jr.:
http://fl.biology.usgs.gov/Amphibians_and_Reptiles/Herp_Program_Goals/
Herp_Smoky_Mtn_Species_List/herp_smoky_mtn._species_list.html

LITERATURE CITED

Bury, R.B. and P.S. Corn. 1991. Sampling methods for amphibians in streams in the Pacific Northwest. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-275, 29 pp.

Daszak, P., L. Berger, A.A. Cunningham, A.D. Hyatt, D.E. Green, and R. Speare. 1999. Emerging infectious diseases and amphibian population declines. Emerging Infectious Diseases 5(6):735-748.

Nickerson, M.A. and C.E. Mays. 1973. The hellbenders: North American 'giant' salamanders. Milwaukee Publ. Mus., Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 106 pp.

Peterson, C.L. 1987. Movement and catchability of the hellbender Cryptobranchus alleganiensis. J. Herp. 21:197-204.

Smith, C.K., and J.W. Petranka. 2000. Monitoring terrestrial salamanders: repeatability and validity of area-constrained cover object searches. J. Herpetol. 34:547-557.

Speare, R., L. Berger, and H. Hines. 1999. How to reduce the risks of you transmitting an infectious agent between frogs and between sites. http://www.jcu.edu.au/school/phtm/PHTM/frogs/prevent.htm

Part II